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Agriculture

Fly Ash Use in Agriculture A Perspective

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INTRODUCTION Fly ash has a potential in agriculture and related applications. Physically Fly Ash occurs as very fine particles, having an average diameter of

INTRODUCTION Fly ash has a potential in agriculture and related applications. Physically Fly Ash occurs as very fine particles, having an average diameter of 25>

It was generally observed that both sandy and clayey soils tend to become loamy in texture (Capp 1978) in the U.S. the average silt content in fly ash is about 63.2% (Sharma et. al. 1989) but in India this content ranges from about 16% (IIT, Kharagpur) to 45% (UAS, Raichur).

Modification of bulk density The grain size distribution especially the silt size range of fly ash affects the bulk density of soil. Chang et. al. (1977) observed that among five soil types Reyes silty clay showed increase in bulk density from 0.89 to 1.01 when the corresponding rates of Fly Ash amendment increased from 0 to 100%. But soils with bulk densities varying between 1.25 and 1.60, a marked decrease in bulk density was observed by the addition of Fly Ash. Page et. al (1979, 1980) reported that Fly Ash amendment to a variety of agricultural soils tend to decrease the bulk density. Optimum bulk density in turn improves the soil porosity, the workability of the soil, the root penetration and the moisture retention capacity of the soil.

Water holding capacity of soil The application of Fly Ash has been found to increase the available water content of loamy sand soil by 120% and of a sandy soil by 67% (PAU, Ludhiana). RRL Bhopal reported that application of Fly Ash increase the porosity of Black Cotton Soil and decreases the porosity of sandy soils and thereby saves irrigation water around by 26% and 30% respectively. Chang et. al. (1977) reported that at an addition of 8% by weight Fly Ash, increased the water holding capacity of soil. They also reported that soil hydraulic conductivity improved at lower rates of Fly Ash application but deteriorated when the rate of Fly Ash amendment exceeded 20% in calcareous soils and 10% in acidic soils. This improvement in water holding capacity is beneficial to the plants especially under rainfed agriculture.

Soil pH In India most of the Fly Ash produced is alkaline in nature. Hence an application of these to agricultural soil increases the soil pH. This property of fly ash can be exploited to neutralize acidic soils (Elseewi et. al. 1978; Phung et. al. 1978). Jastrow et. al. (1979) reported that while addition of fly ash improves soil pH on one hand, it simultaneously adds essential plant nutrients to the soil on the other hand. Page et. al. (1979) observed that experiments with calcareous and acidic soils revealed that fly ash addition increased the pH of the former from 8.0 to 10.8 and that of the latter from 5.4 to 9.9. It has also been reported that the use of excessive quantities of fly ash to alter pH can cause increase in soil salinity especially with unweathered Fly Ash (Sharma et. al. 1989).

Some fly ashes are acidic which may be used for reclamation of alkaline soils. In one of the project sites of FAM at Phulpur, IFFCO has done some work on the reclamation of alkaline soils and observed that the pH of these soils could be brought to near neutral status using these acidic fly ashes.

Effect on soil crust

Fly ash application helps in reducing surface encrustation, which is a problem in red soils (CAS, Raichur). This effect in turn can enhance soil aeration and help in improvement of germination of plants grown on it.

Effect on growth and yield of crops

The positive impact of Fly Ash application on growth & yield of crops has been reported by various agencies. Some of which are given below: Regional Research Laboratory (RRL) Bhopal reported that on an average in comparison to control around 50-60% more yield of Brinjal, around 45% more yield of potato & pea, around 40% more yield of tomato and around 29% more yield of cabbage were recorded in Fly Ash treated plot when Fly Ash was applied @25% of soil. Punjab Agriculture University (PAU) observed that application of Fly Ash @10t/ha increased the yield of wheat from 21.5 q/ha to 24.1 q/ha and that of cotton from 1245 kg/ha to 1443 kg/ha. They have also been found that Fly Ash application @10% by weight increased the dry matter yield of moong from 3.80 gm to 7.36 gm and Fly ash addition from 0 to 80 t/ha increased the yield of paddy from 61.82 q/ha to 63.58 q/ha. College of Agriculture, Raichur observed that the yield of groundnut was increased from 24.1 q/ha to 31.9 q/ha with the application of fly ash @20 t/ha.

View of Groundnut Crop grown on fly ash treated soil at IIT-Kharagpur Forestry and Floriculture species on an Ash Pond (By TERI at BTPS Badarpur) Promising indications were obtained from the preliminary research findings (highlights of which have been given above). A need was felt for collection of a set of empirical data through scientifically designed trials using standard procedures and protocols in a coordinated manner at the national level on the benefits and possible adverse effect of fly ash application in agricultural fields. Fly Ash Mission (FAM) along with its associate agencies has taken up a large number of demonstrative trials (more than 50) at various sites at dispersed locations across the country under varied agro-climatic conditions on a spread of crops, forestry & horticulture species. These trials are being done with varied dose ranges based on the results of the part research experiences of respective centers at their sites. Even upto 100% ash bodies have been used to obtain the extreme effects. The tables 2 & 3, would provide a picture of the locations, plant types and soil types and fly ash dose ranges which have been covered under Fly Ash Mission projects.

Table 2: Field crops & vegetables projects undertaken by FAM S. No.SoilFly ash doses rangeCrops & No. of SitesLocationExecuted by 1Alluvial Soil0-200 t/haRice, wheat (2)Farakka CFRI, Dhanbad 2Alluvial Soil0-100 t/haMustard, jute (1)Farakka CFRI, Dhanbad 3Laterite Soil0-200 t/haRice (5), wheat (4)Bakreshwar CFRI, Dhanbad 4Laterite Soil0-100 t/haMustard, Potato, Lentil (1)Bakreshwar CFRI, Dhanbad 5Black Soil0-50 t/haSugarcaneChidambaramAnnamalai University 6Laterite Soil0-150 t/haGroundnutNeyveliAnnamalai University 7Laterite Soil0-100 t/haSugarcaneNeyveliAnnamalai University 8Black Soil0-150 t/haRice-Green Gram (1)SathamangalamAnnamalai University 9Black Soil0-120 t/haCotton-Rice (1)VellampudugaiAnnamalai University 10Lateritic Soil0-10 t/haRice-Groundnut (3)Kharagpur IIT-Kharagpur 11Lateritic Soil0-20 t/haRice, Groundnut-Mustard (1)KharagpurIIT-Kharagpur 12Lateritic Soil0-30 t/haMustard-Rice (1)KharagpurIIT-Kharagpur 13Lateritic Soil0-10 t/haRice (2)-Mustard, Groundnut, Potato (1)Balarampur, Gholghoria, BurariIIT-Kharagpur 14Lateritic Soil (Red)0-80 t/haSunflower-Groundnut (2)Raichur CAS, Raichur 15Black Soil0-80 t/haSunflower-Maize (2)Raichur CAS, Raichur 16Alluvial Soil0-650 t/haTomato (1), Cabbage (1), Potato (1), wheat (2), Pea (1)- Maize(6), Wheat-Maize (2)Dhodhar, Nilgiri, Rihand NagarRRL, Bhopal 17Alluvial Soil0-650 t/haSunflower (1), tomato (1), Potato (1), Wheat (1), Berseem (1), Red Gram (1), Maize (4), Rice (1)Nilgiri, Rihand NagarRRL, Bhopal 18Alluvial Soil0-40/0-80 t/haRice-Wheat (1), Cotton-Wheat (1), Sunflower-Maize (1), Wheat-Rice (1)Ropar, BhatindaPAU Ludhaina 19Alluvial Soil0-12 t/haWheatRopar (Astalpur)PAU Ludhaina 20Alluvial Soil100% ash body with 7.5 cm soil coverArhar-Wheat (1)BhatindaPAU Ludhaina 21Black Soil0-640 t/ha (Residual Effect)Wheat-Maize, Soyabean-Maize, Lemon Grass (1)SarniRRL, Bhopal 22Alluvial Soil0-640 t/haMaize-Onion, Rice-Sunflower (1)AngulRRL, Bhopal Table 3: Forestry, Land Reclamation projects undertaken by FAM S. No.Soil/Land TypeFly ash doses rangeTree Species & No. of Sites LocationExecuted by 1Laterite Soil0-240 t/haEucalyptus (1)Chaudwar, CuttakTCRDC, Patiala 2Laterite Soil0-24% of pit volume Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, Casurina equisetifolia, Acacia mangium (1)Durga Prasad, CuttackTCRDC, Patiala 3Alkali-Saline Eroded land ( in Arid Zone)0-20% v/wEucalyptus, Zizyphus, Jojoba (1)JaipurTERI, New Delhi 4Ash Pond-Melia azadirach, Delbergia Sisso, Eucalyptus sp., Populus deltoides(1)BadarpurTERI, New Delhi 5Low Fertile Soil1/3 Pit volumeCeiba pentandra, Melia azadirach, Cassia siamea, Erythrina indica, Cassia glauca, Bauhinia purpurea, Putranjiva ,Pongamia glabra ,Thevetia elifera (1)New Delhi TERI, New Delhi 6Usar 0-5%Rice, Wheat (1)DailapurIFFCO, Phulpur 7Usar 0-5%Rice ,mustard (1)TardihIFFCO, Phulpur 8Usar 0-5%Rice, Wheat (1)YakubpurIFFCO, Phulpur 9Usar 0-6%Rice, Wheat (1)PurisudiIFFCO, Phulpur 10Usar 0-6%Rice, Wheat (1)ParasinpurIFFCO, Phulpur 11Usar 0-6%Rice, Wheat (1)MobarukpurIFFCO, Phulpur 12Ash Pond-Rajnigandha ,Tagetus, Carnation, Palmarosa, Sunflower (1)Badarpur, New DelhiTERI, New Delhi Flyash for reclaiming saline alkaline soil – Rice Crop at IFFCI, Phulpur Flower at Ash Pond (by TERI at Badarpur) These trials have been scientifically designed to collect empirical data on effect of fly ash application on soil, plant and natural ground water near the application site. Indicative monitoring is being done of the soil, plant produce, macro & micro nutrient status including the trace & heavy metal status and also the changes in the natural radioactivity level (if any as a result of application of fly ash) on soil, plant and natural ground water near the trial site. The aspect of the nutritional quality of produce grown in fly ash treated soils if also being addressed in a special project by the National Institute of Nutrition. Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar is testing the samples of all FAM project sites for some heavy metals and radionucleide levels. More than 1000 samples have been tested so far. At most places the levels appear to be in the normal range. Highlights of the some the important findings from these trials are as follows: Effect on crop growth and yield:

In rice-groundnut cropping system, application of Fly ash @ 10 t/ha to both the crops increased grain yield of rice on an average by 14% and pod yield of groundnut by 26% over control (IIT-Kharagpur)

Application of Fly Ash @ 10 t/ha in combination with organic and inorganic sources either in one or both the seasons in rice-groundnut cropping system increased grain yield or rice and pod yield of groundnut significantly over application of only chemical fertilizer to both the crops (IIT-Kharagpur)

The treatment combination fly ash @ 10 t/ha alongwith Paper Factory Sludge (@ 15 t/ha) & chemical fertilizer (CF) applied to rice and only CF to potato increased grain yield of Rice and tuber yield of Potato significantly over CF applied to both crops in Rice-Potato cropping system. (IIT-Kharagpur)

In Rice – Mustard cropping system, application of Pond ash @ 10 t/ha in combination with organic and inorganic sources to rice and subsequent mustard with CF alone increased yield of rice by 13-15 % and seed yield by 15-18% as compared to the treatment of similar combination but without Pond Ash.(IIT-Kharagpur)

Use of Pond ash/Fly ash either in splits or as one time application along with organic and inorganic sources were equally effective in increasing grain yield of rice and seed yield of mustard, as compared to the treatment without Pond ash / Fly ash. (IIT-Kharagpur)

At College Of Agriculture -Raichur yield of Sunflower was increased by about 25% in red soil under rained as well as irrigated conditions when fly ash was applied @ 60T/ha along with 20t/ha FYM.

More than 70% increase in yield of groundnut was observed when fly ash was applied @ 30 t/ha along with FYM @ 20 t/ha at CAS Raichur.

The yield of maize also increased by about 35% of present when Fly Ash was applied @ 30 t/ha along with FYM @ 20 t/ha (CAS Raichur).

The performance efficiency of both dry fly ash and pond ash in respect of crop growth parameters (yield & improvement in physical and chemical properties of soil was found to be similar by CFRI, Dhanbad in their studies at Farakka & Bakeraswar). Best grain & straw yield of both paddy and wheat crops were observed 200 t/ha pond ash dose (20-40% increases were observed).

Paddy & Wheat crops grown with Fly Ash showed early maturing tendencies at Farakka

Annamalai University, in their trials found that the application of 100 t/ha of Lignite Fly Ash (LFA) did not adversely affect the germination of seeds of Rice, Green-gram, Groundnut, Sugarcane or Cotton. Satisfactory levels of germination were observed and these were found to be at par with those in control plots (where no Fly Ash/ Pond Ash was applied).

Annamalai University also reported yield increases due to LFA application in eight out of twelve of the field trials (with LFA application between 4-120 t/ha) showing a range of 8% to 36% increase in yield of produce (over control).

Significant yields increases were seen in 2nd and 3rd crop of Groundnut at 10t/ha LFA. Increasing the dose of LFA to 100 t/ha significantly increased pod yield in the first crop itself. (Annamalai University).

Effect on soil health:

In rice based cropping system, application of Fly ash/ Pond Ash @ 10 t/ha alongwith organic and inorganic sources wither in one season or in consecutive seasons improved physical properties of soil through decreasing its bulk density and increasing its water holding capacity and porosity (IIT-Kharagpur)

Being alkaline in nature, application of Fly ash/ Pond Ash @ 10 t/ha in combination with organic and inorganic sources increased pH of acid-latertic soil to a considerable extent (IIT-Kharagpur)

In rice based cropping system, repeat application of Fly Ash/ Pond Ash @ 10 t/ha in combination with organic and inorganic sources raised the fertility status of soil, as compared to the treatment of similar combination but without Fly ash/ Pond ash (IIT-Kharagpur)

In general, the available heavy metal status of soil decreased under Fly ash/ Pond Ash based treatments (IIT-Kharagpur)

Application of Fly ash/ Pond Ash increased soil dehydrogease activity, which was more discernible in aerobic condition than flooded/reduced soil condition (IIT-Kharagpur)

RRL, Bhopal (in the project site Dhodhar, Rihand Nagar) found that the nutrient availability was enhanced in soil where 25% coal ash was applied at one time and in those plots wherein addition to the 25% ash was made initially and 5% addition was made every year.

At CAS, Raichur pH & Electrical Conductivity of soil did not differ significantly due to application of different fly ash levels.

CAS, Raichur also found that the combined application of Fly Ash & FYM had a beneficial effect on the fertility status of soil the content of total lead, arsenic and selenium did not change significantly due to application of recommended dose(upto 60 t/ha) of Fly Ash. However, at higher rate of applications the contents of these toxic elements increased marginally.

CAS, Raichur found that the content of toxic elements was lesser in red soils as compared to black soils.

RRL, Bhopal in its trials at Nilgiri, Rihand Nagar (Land- fill site) found that the primary & secondary nutrients were increased in ash filled plots. The heavy metals like Co, Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd where found to be below detectable limits.

CFRI, Dhanbad found that the application of alkaline Fly Ash (pH 8.3) helped in neutralizing the acidic red soil (pH 5.01) making it more productive and suitable for cultivation. It also helped in improving the utilisation efficiency of NPK fertilizer.

Annamalai University found hat application of Lignite Fly Ash in various soil types showed the following types of soil modifications: Neutralising soil pH Increasing EC Increasing available levels of potassium, sulphur and boron.

Effect on quality of yield and uptake of nutrients and toxic elements:

In rice based cropping system, application of Fly Ash/ Pond Ash @ 10 t/ha in combination with organic and inorganic sources increased the concentration of macronutrients (N, P, CA and Mg) in rice grain and edible part of the subsequent crops (groundnut, potato and mustard) as compared to the treatment of similar combination, but without Fly Ash/ Pond Ash (IIT-Kharagpur)

Decrease in heavy metal concentration in grain or edible part of the different crops under Fly Ash/ Pond Ash based treatment is due to dilution effect of these elements through increased grain/edible yield (IIT-Kharagpur)

Radionucleide levels in grain/edible part of rice, groundnut, potato and mustard varied under Fly Ash/ Pond Ash based treatments as compared to the treatments without it and indicated no adverse effect of Fly ash/ Pond Ash (IIT-Kharagpur).

The nutritional value of agricultural produce grown on ash-filled land-fill sites in terms of protein & carbohydrates were found to be comparable with the National Institute of Nutrition-Standards (RRL, Bhopal- trials at Nilgiri, Rihand Nagar)

Effect on ground water:

Application of Fly Ash/ Pond Ash in combination with organic and inorganic sources released lower quantity of Fe and Mn to ground water as compared to the treatment without Fly Ash/ Pond Ash (IIT-Kharagpur).

In ground water samples the level of 286Ra was decreased, 228Ac remained unchanged under Fly Ash/ Pond Ash based treatment as compared to the treatments without it, indicating poor leaching of radionucleide to ground water. Thereby the ground water quality due to application of Fly Ash/ Pond Ash remained unaffected with respect to radionucleide contamination (IIT-Kharagpur).

Other effects:

The crops grown under Fly Ash/ Pond Ash based treatment were observed to be resistant to disease, insect, and pest infestation as compared to the crops grown without Fly Ash/ Pond Ash (IIT-Kharagpur).

At Bakreshwar, in farmers’ field trials the farmers have observed that the crops grown in Fly Ash treated plots were relatively more resistant to pest attack in compared to those in control plots.

Farmers were enthused to take `groundnut’ crop in rabi using Fly Ash as compared to the traditional `boro rice’ crop at Kharagpur for a better `cost-benefit ratio’. Use of Fly Ash as a Mine Soil Amendment The physical effects of fly ash additions on soils were discussed earlier, but relatively high loading rates (> 100 tons per acre) are generally required to significantly influence soil physical properties such as water holding capacity and aggregation. In most instances, fly ash is added to soils primarily to affect chemical properties such as pH and fertility, and loading rates are limited by chemical effects in the treated soils. Plant growth on fly ash-amended soils is most often limited by nutrient deficiencies, excess soluble salts and phytotoxic B levels (Page et al., 1979; Adriano et al., 1980). Fly ash usually contains virtually no N and has little plant-available P. However, newer power plants may be adding ammonia as a flue gas conditioner to limit NOX emissions which may lead to some plant-available N. Application of fly ash to soil may cause P deficiency, even when the ash contains adequate amounts of P, because soil P forms insoluble complexes with the Fe and Al in more acidic ashes (Adriano et al., 1980) and similarly insoluble Ca-P complexes with Class C ashes. Amendment of K-deficient soil with fly ash increases plant K uptake, but the K in fly ash is apparently not as available as fertilizer K, possibly because the Ca and Mg in the fly ash inhibit K absorption by plants (Martens et al., 1970). In some cases, soils have been amended with fly ash in order to correct micronutrient deficiencies. Acidic-to-neutral fly ash has been found to correct soil Zn deficiencies, although alkaline fly ash amendment can induce Zn deficiency because Zn becomes less available with increasing pH (Schnappinger et al., 1975). Fly ash application has also been shown to correct B deficiencies in alfalfa (Plank and Martens, 1974). In some cases, plant yields after fly ash application have been reduced because of B toxicity (Martens et al., 1970; Adriano et al., 1978). Soil amendment with fly ash to alleviate B deficiencies should be carefully monitored in order to avoid B toxicity. Fly ash often contains high concentrations of potentially toxic trace elements. Plants growing on soils amended with fly ash have been shown to be enriched in elements such as As, Ba, B, Mo, Se, Sr, and V (Furr et al., 1977; Adriano et al., 1980). Although trace amounts of some of these elements are required for plant and animal nutrition, higher levels can be toxic. Highly phytotoxic elements often kill plants before the plants are able to accumulate large quantities of the element; which limits their transfer to grazing animals. Elements such as Se and Mo, however, are not particularly toxic to plants and may be concentrated in plant tissue at levels that cause toxicities in grazing animals. Soils amended with high rates of fly ash may accumulate enough Mo to potentially cause molybdenosis in cattle (Doran and Martens, 1972; Elseewi and Page, 1984). Finally, amendment of soil with fresh fly ash may increase soil salinity (reported as soluble salts or electrical conductance-EC) and associated levels of soluble Ca, Mg, Na, and B. Incorporation of 80 T/A unweathered fly ash from a Nevada power plant increased soil salinity 500 to 600% and also caused a significant increase in soluble B, Ca, and Mg (Page et al., 1979). Fly ash that has been allowed to weather and be leached by rainfall for several years generally has much lower soluble salt and soluble B concentrations and is more suitable for use as a soil amendment (Adriano et al., 1982). In general, ashes which have been wet-handled in the plant and stored in ponds will be much lower in soluble salts and B than dry-collected ashes. Use of Fly Ash in Acidic Spoil and Coal Refuse Revegetation Alkaline fly ash can aid in the reclamation of acidic spoils and refuse piles, although one-time ash applications do not appear to be effective in maintaining increased pH if pyrite oxidation is not completely stopped and neutralized. The pH of an extremely acidic surface mine soil and a coal refuse bank in West Virginia was initially raised to near neutral by application of high rates of alkaline (pH 11.9) fly ash. Soil pH dropped 1 to 2 units over the next two growing seasons, however, presumably because of continued pyrite oxidation in the spoils and leaching of Ca and Mg oxides from the fly ash (Adams et al., 1972). Jastrow et al. (1981) used fly ash as an alternative to lime in a greenhouse experiment involving acidic coal refuse. The initial pH of the refuse was 3.5. Amendment with fly ash raised the pH to 4.8, but it dropped to 4.2 by the end of one growing season. In another greenhouse experiment, the application of fly ash to extremely acidic coal refuse resulted in a higher pH and significantly increased barley yields (Taylor and Schumann, 1988). Boron toxicity has been observed in plants grown on fly ash-amended mine spoils, although in some cases toxicity symptoms were apparent but yields were not reduced (Adams et al., 1972; Keefer et al., 1979; Taylor and Schumann, 1988). Jastrow et al. (1981) implicated Mn, Zn, and V toxicity as possible factors in reduction of tall fescue yields on fly ash-amended coal refuse. Coal refuse often contains high levels of trace elements and fly ash application can raise the concentrations of these elements to toxic levels, especially if pH is not controlled. Return to Table of Contents Studies on possible negative effects of Fly Ash application Ground Water

Fly Ashes contain a small amount of trace and heavy metals which may percolate down and pollute ground water. The solubility of these elements is

At Central Fuel Research Institute (CFRI), Dhanbad it was observed that the quality of ground water did not change with the application of flyash and all the parameters including the trace and toxic metal contents were within the permissible limits. Some other research organisations also observed that Fly Ash has no significant polluting effect on ground water.

Uptake of heavy metals and toxic elements by plants

Fly Ash has ppm level concentration of heavy metals, when applied to soil these elements may get absorbed by plants grown on it which may ultimately enter into food chain. However, the absolute quantities of these elements in flyashes are low which may not result into negative effect. The data on trace element uptake and accumulation by plant are limiting. Despite fairly intensive research over the last 25 years, the data on trace element accumulation are rather sketchy and inconsistent. Boron in FLy Ash is readily available to plants and investigators consider B to be limiting factor in unweathered Fly Ash utilisation (Townsend and Gillham (1975); Elseewi et.al. 1978; Ciravolo and Adriano, 1979). RRL, Bhopal conducted a study regarding the uptake of heavy and trace metals by some vegetable crops and it was observed that the uptake is quite low and remains within the normal range.

Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad observed that there is no significant differences in uptake of trace & heavy metal between control and Fly Ash treated plots. Although Fly Ash contain a moderate amount of trace and heavy metals, the uptake and accumulation of these by plants in very negligible.

Radionuclides

There have been several reports in the literature on the presence of radionuclides in Fly Ash but studies on their impact have been few (Coles et.al. 1978; Gowiak and Pacynas, 1980). The radiochemical pollution of Uranium and Thorium series is always present in Fly Ash (Eisenbud and Petrow 1964). The concentration of natural Uranium varies from 14 to 100 ppm although in exceptional cases it may be as high as 1500 ppm whereas that of Thorium is less than 10 ppm. The Fly Ash concentrates besides other gaseous and trace metal oxides, several radioactive contaminants like 222Ru & 220Ru (Sharma et.al. 1989). Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Bombay is of the opinion that most of the Indian coals has very low levels of radioactivity which is well below the hazardous limit. Hence radioactivity of Fly Ash may not be a limiting factor for its application for agriculture purposes. Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad observed that there is no significant uptake of radioactive elements by plants and also that there was negligible cumulative build up of these contaminants in soil when Fly Ash applied for agriculture purposes.

Conclusions: The potential of fly ash as a resource material in agriculture and related areas is now a well-established fact and more and more researchers and `users’ are getting convinced with its utility potential in this field. The major attribute, which makes Fly ash suitable for agriculture, is its texture and the fact that it contains almost all the essential plant nutrients except organic carbon and nitrogen. Although fly ash cannot substitute the need of chemical fertilizers or organic manure it can be used in combination with these (or in some cases may part substitute their requirement) to the to get additional benefits in terms of improvement in soil physical characteristics, increased yields etc. As in the case with fertilizers and any other agriculture input , the amount and method of fly ash application would vary with the type of soil, the crop to the grown, the prevailing agroclimatic condition and also the type of fly ash available. Although, fly ash has many benefits as an input material for agriculture applications, in view of the fear in the minds of many (regarding the levels of natural radioactivity in Fly Ash and/ the characteristic presence of some amounts of heavy and toxic elements in it) there may be some cautions which have to be taken for the time being while using Fly Ash in agriculture. From the information available till now, there appears to be not much ground for concern on these accounts (heavy metals, radioactivity etc) however further confirmatory studies at the ICAR centers would be helpful in bringing out recommendations in this field. Meanwhile there appears to be sufficient ground now for the cautious and judicious use of this useful material, which is otherwise being wasted/ underutilized. References: Arthur, M.F., Zwick, T.C., Tolle, D.A., and Van Varis, P. (1984) Effects of flyash on microbial Co2 evolution from our agricultural soil. Water Air Soil Pollut., 22, 209. CAS Raichur(1997) Interim report Of Fly Ash Mission sponsored project “Utilization Of Fly Ash in Agriculture ” submitted to Fly Ash Mission Capp, J.P. (1978) Power Plant flyash utilisation for land reclamation in the eastern United States, in Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands. Schaller, F.W. and Sutton, P., Eds., Sol. Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, WI, 339. Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad(1999) Draft report Of Fly Ash Mission sponsored project “Utilization Of Fly Ash in Agriculture ” submitted to Fly Ash Mission Ciravolo, T.G. and Adriano, D.C. (1979) Utilisation of Coal ash by crops under green house conditions, in Ecology and Coal Resources Development, Wali, M.,Ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 958. Chang, A.C., Lund, L.J., Page, A.L. and Warneke, J.E. (1977) Physical properties of flyash amended soils. J. Environ Qual. 6(3), 267. Eisenbud, M.and Petrow, H.C. (1964) Radioactivity in the atmospheric effluents of power palnts that use fossil fuel. Science 144, 288. Elseewi, A.A., Binghman, F.T. and Page, A.L.(1978) Growth and mineral composition of lettuce and swiss chard grown on flyash amended soils, in Environmental Chemistry and Cycling processes, Conf. 760429, Adriano, D.C. and Brisbin, I.L.,Eds., U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA, 568. Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University (1999). Interim Report of Fly Ash Mission sponsored project “Selected Technology Project for Fly Ash Disposal and Utilization in Agriculture” (10-03). Fail, J.L. amd Wochok, Z.S. (1977) Soyabean growth on flyash amended strip mine soils. Palnt Soil, 48, 473. Gowiak, B.J. and Pacyna, J.M. (1980) Radiation dose due to atmospheric releases from coal-fired power stations. Int.J. Environ. Stud. 16,23. Gralloway, J.N., Likens, G.E. and Edgeston, E.S.(1976) Acid rain precipitation in the north eastern United States; pH and acidity, Science 194, 722, IIT Kharagpur (1999) Draft report Of Fly Ash Mission sponsored project ” Utilisation Of Fly Ash And Organic Wastes In Restoration Of Crop Land Ecosystem ” submitted to Fly Ash Mission Jastrow, J.D., Zimmerman, C.A., Dvorak, A.J. and Hinchman, R.R.(1979) Comparison of Lime and Flyash as Amendments to Acidic Coal Mine Refuse: Growth Responses and Trace Element Uptake of Two Grasses. Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, 43. Kumar, V. (1996) Fly Ash Utilisation: A Mission Mode Approach in Ash Ponds and Ash disposal Systems. Raju, V.S., Dutta, M., Seshadri, V., Agarwal, V.K. & Kumar, V., Eds. Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 365. Kumar V, Goswami G and Zacharia K A (1999). Fly Ash: Its Influence on Soil Properties. Indian Society Soil Sciences Workshop, 18-21st October 1999, Calcutta Kumar V, Goswami G and Zacharia K A (1998). Fly Ash Use in Agriculture: Issues & Concern. International Conference on Fly Ash Disposal & Utilisation, 20-22nd January, New Delhi. Natusch, D.F.S. (1975) Characteristics of pollutants from coal combustion and conversion process, in Toxic Effects on the Aquatic Biota from Coal and Oil Shale Development, Quarterly Progress Rep. Oct.- Dec., Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 73, 1975. Padmakaran, P. et.al.(1994) Fly ash and its utilisation in industry and agricultural land development. Research & Industry, 40, 244-250. Page, A.L., Elseewi, A.A. and Straughan, I.R. (1979) Physical and Chemical Properties of flyash from coal-fired plants with reference to environmental impacts. Residue Rev., 7, 83. Page, A.L., Elseewi, A.A., Lund, L.J., Bradford, G.R., Mattigod, S., Chang, A.C. and Bingham, F.T. (1980) Consequences of Trace Element Enrichment of Soils and Vegetation from the Combustion of Fuels Used in Power Generation. University of Claifornia, Riverside, 158. Phung, H.T., Lund, I.J. and Page, A.L. (1978) Potential use of flyash as a liming material in Environmental Chemistry and Cycling Processes, Conf. 760429, Adriano, D.C. and Brisbin, I.L., Eds. U.S. Department of Energy, 504. Punjab Agriculture University (1993) Utilisation of flyash in agriculture and revegetation of dumping sites. Annual progress report. Rohriman, F.A.(1971) Analysing the effect of flyash on water pollution. Power, 115, 76. RRL Bhopal (1999) Interim report Of Fly Ash Mission sponsored project “Long Term Effect Of Fly Ash On Soil Fertility And Crop Yield” submitted to Fly Ash Mission Sharma, S. et.al. (1989) Flyash dynamics in soil-water systems. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 19(3), 251-275. Townsend, W.N. and Gillham, E.W.F. (1975) Pulverised fuel ash as a medium for plant growth, in The Ecology and Resource Degradation and Renewal, Chadwick, M.L. and Goodman, G.T., Eds., Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 287. Vijayan, V. & Ramamurthy, V.S. (1995) Measurement of indoor radon levels in Bhubaneshwar. Bulletin of Radiation Protection, vol (18) No. 1 & 2. Zacharia, K.A.; Kumar, V. & Velayutham, M. (1996) Fly Ash Utilisation in agriculture towards a holistic approach. National Seminar on Fly Ash Utilisation, Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited, Neyveli.

Agriculture

Influence Of The New Moon

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Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of gravity speaks that every particle attracts every other particle with a force that depends on their masses and the distance between them. The moon constantly attracts the earth behaves like a loose garment that can be pulled out from the body to fall back again. It implies that every day, when the moon is directly overhead, the water of the earth flows out towards the moon, and causes high tide. Hence, during the full moon, the attraction is greater than the normal. Dr. Lyall Watson writes in Supernature (London, 1973, p. 49) that, “Every drop of water in the ocean responds to this force, and every living marinal animal and plant is made aware of the rhythm. The lives of those that inhabit the margins of the seas depend entirely on this awareness.”

Sir J.G. Frazer has discussed the influence of the new moon and propounded that it brings fertility and causes growth in agriculture (The Golden Bough, London, 1956, p. 128). Sir Frank Browne writes in his remarks in 1964 that, “The life of the oyster has a marked rhythm that corresponds to the tidal rhythm of the waters. The fascinating thing; however was that the behaviour of all the oysters had altered in exactly the same way, and they were still keeping time with each other. The oysters had adopted a new rhythm and now opened up at the time of tide. This is the first piece of scientific evidence to show that even an organism living away from the ocean tides could be influenced by the coming out of new moon” (Living Organism, London, 1969, p. 12).

The small silver fish, known as Grunion survives on its response to the lunar cycle. Shortly after the new moon from March to August, the Grunion appears on the surface on the shores of California. The Grunion leave their eggs buried in the wet sand undisturbed for two weeks, because the waves of water will not come until new moon. When the spring tide occurs, the larvae have completely developed and they break out of the eggs and swim away through the surf. The ability of the Grunion to reproduce is thus controlled by the new moon.

Land animals are also influenced by the new moon. The May flies may live only for a few hours, during which time they have to find another fly mate and lay their eggs in water. To accomplish this, it is necessary that all the flies emerge together at around the same time. Lake Victoria, the source of Nile river has a successful species of May fly, called Provilla Adusta. These insects use the new moon as a signal for the time to emerge, and thus ensure the survival of their species (The Sea Around Us, London, 1979, p. 15 by Rachel Carson).

The human birth times are closely linked to the lunar cycle. The two doctors collected information on more than half a million birth that occurred in New York hospital between 1948 and 1957. This instance showed a clear report of normal delivery chiefly during the new moon (Lunar Periodicity in Human Reproduction, New York, 1959)

There is a close connection between the new moon and the bleeding in general. The scientists have discovered that the new moon controls the flow of blood in the same way that it controls the tides. Edson Andrew reports that in a survey of over a thousand bleeders, the patients needing unusual means of hemostats (of preventing bleeding) on the operating table. Almost 82% of all the bleeding crisis occurred between the first and the last quarters of the moon. It means that a minimum of crisis (only 18%) occurred in that half of the lunar month centered around the new moon. Dr. Andrew comments, “These data have been so conclusive and convincing to me that I threaten to become a witch-doctor and operate on dark night only, saving the moonlight nights for romance.” When it is moonlight, it is not new moon as during new moon, there is no light (Cycle in your Life, London, 1976 by Dr. Duff)

Leonard Ravitz had discovered a direct physiological link between man and the moon. He found that all people show a cyclic pattern between the head and a chest reading, which is in accordance with the lunar cycle, vide Periodic Changes in Electromagnetic Fields, New York, 1960 by L.V. Ravitz.

It is well known fact that mental patients or lunatics are greatly influenced mentally by the lunar cycle. The full moon is a time of unusually high activity among the mental patients, and the staff working in mental hospitals is not generally permitted to take a day off when it is full moon, because the whole group of staff is required to be able to manage the increased activity amongst the patients. In contrast, the new moon is a time of unusual quiet among mental patients. Activity in normal hospitals is also significantly increased at the time of full moon.

Whatever the time chosen, there are two days in every month and such days are when the sun and moon come into opposition, i.e., the new moon. On such occasions, the spiritual forces are released on earth and the aspirant must take an advantage of them. These forces are grace for those who are meditating, vide The Quest of the Ourself by Paul Brunton.

Agriculture

Capitalism, Past And Present

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Discuss capitalism would not be complete when not discussing the ideas of Adam Smith, particularly his ideas contained in his famous book, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations. As has been explained by the quote above, Smith put the freedom, markets and individual interests as the basis for economic concept. Three key concepts that would in turn become the basis for capitalism. There are five basic principles of capitalism, namely:

1. Capitalism is the full recognition of the rights of individual property or an individual with no specific boundaries. Private property rights is the guarantee for the individual concerned to uphold freedom and independence. Individual freedom will become a reality when he justified his own to have a guaranteed without parties or other individuals sued.
2. Capitalism is a recognition of the right of individuals to conduct economic activities in order to enhance socio-economic status.
3. Capitalism implies recognition of a push or economic motivation in the form of the spirit to achieve maximum benefit (profite oriented).
4. Capitalism also includes the affirmation of freedom of competition with other individuals (freedom for competition).
5. Capitalism recognizes the legal validity of the free market economy or the market mechanism (Seda, 1996:272).

Fifth recognition is then a manifestation of the concept of Laissez-faire, Laissez-Passer which is the core of capitalism and liberalism. “Modern Industry never have evolved without any division of labor and capital accumulation both of which were based on self-interest” says Smith.

Before rolling into other problems, it helps if we first discuss the origin of the word capitalism itself.

The terms of capital or capital or Capitale (derived from the Latin: caput, which means it is the head) appears first in the 12th century and 13th century which meant funds, stocks, some money and interest on the loan. Ferdinad Braudel quotes a priest of St. sermon. Bernardino of Siena (1380-1444), “quamdam seminale quam rationem lucrosi cummuniter vocamus capitale” (that is the main cause of prosperity usually capital). These terms refer, more narrowly, the wealth of money a company or a dealer. Berger writes, nouns “capitalist” is probably began in the mid 17th century which refers to the owners of capital. Adams Smith, who had been regarded as the father of capitalism do not use this term, instead he used the term “system of natural liberty.”

Warner Sombart was the first to recognize capitalism as a fundamental concept of a system of economic thought in his book, Der Moderne Capitalismus which was published 81 years ago (1921).

In the beginning introduction, the term of capitalism is not getting good response from social science experts, including Karl Marx himself was so excited and enthusiastic about offal dismantle capitalism. The term capitalism is even considered as an expression of a “lot of noise” that needs to removed from the vocabulary of social science experts. It’s different with the current condition where the term capitalism has become a kind of “life style icon” for intellectuals. Everyone is talking about capitalism and link (sometimes visible force) with a variety of social phenomena when trying to explain the reality of what happened.

One important point in the discussion of capitalism is to figure out a fundamental characteristic of these systems, as already mentioned above, ie, maximizing individual gains through economic activities that are intended to help the public interest. The principle that applies in the laissez-faire capitalism is, that is a principle that prohibits external authority to intervene in economic affairs. The basis of this principle is thought, that if humans are given the freedom to pursue profit there will be competition with the stability of society will be maintained because there are invisible hands that govern them. Another principle of capitalism is production for profit is intended to increase the capital. With this logic of the capitalist are competing to produce goods as efficiently as possible so that capital can be accumulated and the foundation of the company is getting stronger.

In development since its inception, capitalism has several historical stages. Dillard dividing the stages into three.

The early stage of capitalism (1500-1750). Development of capitalism can not be separated from the development of clothing industry in England in medieval times that is, the wool industry. Wool industry was built on the rural-rural England. Determination of rural areas as a production center, according to Dillard, beneficial for the development of British capitalism because of conflict-avoiding social conflict as happened in Florence in the 14th century and 13th-century Flanders.

Dillard trace, during this “social surplus” obtained is not used to build pyramids and cathedrals but is used to build businesses shipping, warehousing, raw materials, finished goods and various other form of wealth. In addition three other things that support their development is, first, the religious support for their hard work and live frugally. This support comes primarily from Protestant Calvinism and the teachings of Martin Luther King. For teaching the material prosperity of medieval Catholicism is considered “something” dirty. St. Jerome said, “a rich man, if not necessarily the child thief thief”. However, the development of trade in the late Middle Ages led to controversy and encourage efforts toward adjustment between theological doctrines with economic reality. In many regions of Europe, Venice, Florence, Augsburn and others, the capitalists violate the spirit and letter of prohibitions against manipulating the flowering of money. Protestant Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries is also accompanied by economic changes that resulted in the development of capitalism in Holland and England.
Chronological and geographical correlation between this new religion with the growth in the economy to create the impression that Protestantism has a causal significance to the emergence of modern capitalism, although not in any sense the cause of capitalism, the first existing in a broad scope and growing, but ethics Protestants became strong stimulus for the economic order. Revision or interpretation of religious doctrine not only frees the capitalist practices of the sin of greed, but even membari divine support for the way life is.

Second, the effect of precious metal from the New World on the relative distribution of income on wages, profits and rent. Gold and silver from mines in Mexico, Peru and Bolivia to increase European precious metals stocks to seven-fold and increased the prices of up to two or three times in the years 1540-1640. The result is situated on rising prices, causing the landlords hit due sebandingnya not increase rents and increase the cost of living. For the landlords that aggressive, raise rents and apply the practices of capitalistic agriculture is the solution implemented. Inflation is giving birth profits for the capitalists, including traders, industrialists and other employers. In the end, these favorable conditions add to the savings and capital accumulation for them.

Third, the role in helping countries and directly to capital formation in multi-modal forms of capital. Dillard writes that the positive contributions and historical significance of mercantilism that era is the creation of necessary conditions for rapid economic change and cumulative in Western Europe.

Condition of Europe at that time was the same as the conditions of developing countries where the state started the 20th century, cumulative process of economic development. In addition the country also needed to create conditions which could give a proper atmosphere for the operation of such economic activities, providing protection from foreign attack, providing facilities that support transportation, communications and port installations, arrange a suitable legislation for capitalist progress, the creation of domestic markets and tax free other obstacles within the limits of state and others.

Classical capitalism (1750-1914). Start the 18th century there was a shift in the development of capitalism in which the domination of trade in economic activity is replaced by the industry. The domination of capital that had been dominated by trade in capital switched to industrial capital. This is caused by the industrial revolution in England. Adam Smith in An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations it is the most influential factor in the development of classical capitalism.

After the French revolution and the wars, Napoleon swept the remnants of feudalism and mercantilism loosen, Smith’s policy came into effect. Policies of laissez-faire, laissez Passer (free trade, market mechanisms, a balanced budget and strong financial using the gold standard) is run. In England this system looks at the removal of Corn Laws in 1864.

Applicability of liberalism in European countries is the successful efforts of the bourgeoisie venture capitalists raised to a position for a while very influential. Economically successful political force that eventually generate profitable capitalistic process.

The implementation of free trade in his time period of economic expansion will bring a very large for Europe, with the colonization of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Advanced phase of capitalism (since 1914-present). In this phase of capitalism is also experiencing rapid growth in its history insanely particularly in social management.

World War I marked a turning point in the development of capitalism in general and Europe khususnya.periode since 1914 witnessed a reversal of public interest to capitalism and the reversal of almost all the tendencies of the pre-war liberals. Sebalum decades of war, capitalism, strong leadership in Europe to run the international economic community. Developing world markets, the gold standard almost become universal, Europe acting as world and European banks became central to increasing the volume of international trade.

But after World War I, the trends change, U-turn. International markets subside, the gold standard was abandoned and the national payment instruments, preferably in a controlled manner, the hegemony of European banks moved to the United States. Regarding the actual displacement of this hegemony has been predicted long ago by Adam Smith:

Starting from shop owners, merchants and their legal experts (American colonists) would become statesmen and legislators and legislators-will be employed to reach a new form of government of a vast empire, which in their beliefs – beliefs which may very true – will be one of the largest and wonderful empire which had existed on this earth.

Of peoples in Asia and Africa that have been used as the colony managed to rise against European colonialism and also added in trade barriers, more and break the European dominance in the world.

Meanwhile capitalism in Eastern Europe began to weaken due to the Bolshevik revolution driven by Lenin. Revolution has been dismantling the principal institutions of capitalist private ownership of means of production over a large area, unload the class structure, the old forms of government and the established religion. Moreover spirit generated by the Russian revolution in less than half a century, managed to appear to challenge the superiority of capitalist organization of production systems. In Western Europe and the shift by abandoning traditional forms of capitalism. Above all, Laissez-faire, the policy into an agreement to the 19th century, had been humiliated by the war and postwar experiences.

With the onset of major depression in the 1930s, the capitalist system that had stood settled, shaken up by the roots. Laissez-faire, said Dillard, suffered a severe blow from the president’s New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States. Gold standard collapsed completely, falling stock markets. While in England, which is the home of capitalism, free trade be abandoned. Classical principle of strong financial, annual budget was balanced, in practice and theory is replaced by a planned deficit during depressed economic activity. At the end of World War II, the glorious period of classical capitalism fade with dinasionalisasikannya basic industries, including coal, transport, communications, public interest and the Bank of England by the labor party in power in England.

malaise Passover is the beginning of the welfare-state system that put the country back on its function – although not total as in communist countries. In the welfare-state system of state run social functions for maintaining the stability of capitalism.

Form of capitalism, this type can be seen in the United States, which by Saiful Arif mentioned systems in the United States has several aspects: first, the principle of freedom (freedom) which means free enterprise and invest (free entry in consumption and investment) and limitations on government intervention as well as arrange democratic political model.

Second, the principle of balance (equality). The presence of diffusion between the political and economic power; the same bargaining power between producers and consumers as well as equal opportunity as well as efforts to create equity.

Third, the principle of justice (fairness). Represents an attempt to avoid unfair practices such as workers who do not meet the standard; host relationships and exploitative employers and others.

Fourth, the principle of welfare (welfare). To take into account the allocation and production efficiency. Welfare parameters can be known through government oversight of price stability and efforts to create a condition of employment that is full employment (labor intensive).

Fifth, the principle of sustainable growth (sustainable growth). The indication is the real income growth and technological progress.

Susan George writes, in the year 1945 or 1950, if you seriously offer any ideas and policies that are currently referred to as neo-liberalism, you will be ridiculed on the stage or sent to a psychiatric hospital. In any western countries, at that time, each person is a Keynesian, Social Democratic or Christian-Social-Democratic Party or the Marxist. The idea that markets should be released to manage the public and political policies: an idea which states that countries should voluntarily stay away from the economy, or companies should be given total freedom, that trade unions should be curbed and social guarantees society must be reduced – such ideas felt very strange to the spirit of that era. Although some people approve of these ideas, but they will not hesitate to bring it and will find it difficult to find his audience.

But after the collapse of communism in 1989, the welfare-state is becoming obsolete. Collapse of the welfare-state system has actually been started unreadable since Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to power and change the existing policy in their respective countries toward neo-liberalism that is often termed Thatcherism and Reagenisme. In the 1990s this condition is intensified with the increasing acceptance of neo-liberalism by most of the world community through the logic of globalization.

Agriculture

What Importance Does Agricultural Implements Have In Indian Farming

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Indian agriculture is the backbone of the country. For efficient farming, Agricultural Implements are very important. Agriculture is not only limited to quality farming but has to satisfy the large market demands because of the immense increase in the population of India. Indian agriculture industry is able to cater to the needs of Indian population owing to the advanced Agricultural Implements. Agricultural Implements have high importance in Indian farming as technology has become an inseparable part of this sector.

Agricultural Implements & Their Uses

The biggest problem in agriculture was the threat of pests. And it was really hard to control pests over vast farmed areas. But with the help of Agricultural Sprayers, pest control has become a short and easy task. And for every specific requirement there is a specific type of Agricultural Sprayer available in the market.

Harvesting was also a time taking process before the introduction of Harvesters. Different types of crops can be very efficiently cut with the use of different hi-tech Harvesters within a short time period.

Weeds always grow around and in the farm land. That is why Weeders of various types are required to keep the growth of weeds at bay. Brush Weed Cutters are widely used Agricultural Implements for the cutting of weeds.

Numerous crops are marketed in shredded form. And shredding of specific crops is best done by implements like Electric Chipper Shredder, Coconut Leaves Shredder, etc.

Tea Harvesting Machine is a special type of Agricultural Implement that is used only for farming tea. With the help of the Tea Harvesting Machine, tea farming has become quite an economic process.

In todays world, agriculture industry cannot do without the help of Advanced Agricultural Implements, if it has to match up with the international standards. Are you looking for a reliable manufacturer of Agricultural Implements? Given below is a one stop solution to your all types of needs of Agriculture Implements.

Based in Tamil Nadu, India, Maax Engineering is a leading Manufacturer, Exporter, Importer and Supplier of Agriculture Instruments .

Agriculture

Urban Governance and Infrastructure – Part 11

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